Kandinsky vs Delaunay

A modernist reading of the History of Art would suggest that artists during the early twentieth century were, as a collective, aiming towards producing a pure or abstract art, devoid of any social or political meaning and exiting simply for arts sake. Robert Delaunay (1885- 1941) and Wassily Kandinsky (1866- 1944) represent two artists heralded as canonical in this strive to abstraction and a pure aesthetic by the modernist view. In The Twentieth Century Art Book, Delaunay’s work, especially his use of colour, is described as simply having had a huge ‘impact on the development of abstract art’ (Barnes, et al., 1999). To reduce Delaunay’s complex ideas of colour theory and his reasons for employing them in his work to such, is to inhibit the understanding of his art practice. Similarly, in The Twentieth Century Art Book, the description of Kandinsky’s work is only considered in terms of its aesthetic content, hailing him as ‘one of the founders of pure abstract art’. Robert Delaunay’s The Cardiff Team[1] and Wassily Kandinsky’s Composition VII[2] both painted in the year 1913 will be used to demonstrate that whilst the aesthetic appearance of two art works may be similar and indeed may appear to aim toward the same stylistic consequences of abstraction, the views held by the artists are starkly different.

Whilst the key imagery in Delaunay’s The Cardiff Team is recognisable, the overall style does lean towards abstraction. The motifs are disguised within a grid of coloured blocks, showing Delaunay’s influence from a range of other artistic sources, particularly analytical Cubism(Chipp, 1958). Delaunay was inspired to create this piece ‘from a newspaper photograph of a Cardiff- Paris rugby match’ (National Galleries of Scotland, 2010) as it references popular culture but also the speed of modernity he was influenced to achieve in his paintings by the Futurist movement (Duchting, Robert and Sonia Delaunay; The Triumph of Colour, 1994). Delaunay also references other symbols of the modern world erupting into society in the early twentieth century; an advert for an aircraft construction company, Paris’s famous Ferris wheel, an aeroplane and the Eiffel Tower, which the artist considered to be the ‘archetypal symbol of modernity’ (National Galleries of Scotland, 2010). It could be said then, that the reason for Delaunay’s apparent lean to abstraction is to show the integration of elements of the modern society. By literally fragmenting the recognisable motifs and intercepting them with each other, Delaunay achieves a representation of the integration of people with the new modern world and the excitement which it causes.

It is largely through the artists colour theory however, that his views on this new modernity become fully comprehendible. The movement Orphism was so named by famous French poet Guillaume Apollinaire to describe the work of Delaunay, which he saw as a synthesis of ‘colour, light, music and poetry’ (Duchting, Robert and Sonia Delaunay; The Triumph of Colour, 1994). It was indeed in the relationship between colour and light that Delaunay’s colour theory was based in, as he believed them to have a certain cosmic energy. He was obsessed with the circular haloes of light produced by prisms and went on to compose the non figurative series of Circular Forms, for the brief period from 1912- 1914. In the ‘densely interwoven, complexly modulated colour structures’ (Spate, 1997, p. 92) he painted, Delaunay broke apart the colour spectrum to place contrasting colours adjacent to each other which produced a ‘movement of colours’ (Delaunay, Letter to Wassily Kandinsky, 1912) and a ‘rhythmic simultaneity’ (Delaunay, Light, 1912); essentially Delaunay created movement and dynamic energy in these ‘pure paintings’, through the contrasting colours within them.

Far from being a leap into the realms of pure art however, it would seem that Delaunay, in this period, worked purely on his colour theory, so that it could be applied to his later works to evoke certain meanings. The fact that he returned to imagery at all serves as evidence that Delaunay’s primary aim was not pure art. As he was aware from his involvement in Symbolism the art work could act as a medium of conveying a message to the audience. Importantly, this was best achieved if figuration was used, as ‘the spectator’s conventional expectation is that objects, however disguised, serve as the vehicle of meaning’ (Kuspit, 1975, p. 113); Delaunay wished to return to imagery to promote meaning and give a socio-political message.

In the 1923 version of The Cardiff Team[3] it can be seen how Delaunay employs his dynamic circles of colour and principles of his pure painting to his figurative work. By breaking down the image of the Cardiff rugby team into their dynamic colours, he promotes not only their speed and athleticism, but flattens the image of the human figures, forcing them into the same picture space as the symbols of modernity. Humanism is rejected in this piece in order to promote modernity and modern philosophy, such as ‘Bergson’s intensive, almost poetic, attempt to penetrate the core of non-conceptual consciousness’ (Spate, 1997, p. 87). Delaunay does not only see modernity as an exhilarating age of the machine, but as a magical, almost spiritual force. The use of the term ‘Astra’ is not only an aeroplane construction company , but also means ‘the stars’, which is where, it seems Delaunay wants to take the viewer as their eyes ride the Ferris wheel and fly off in the aeroplane, fully immersing themselves in the twentieth century.

Composition VII ‘must be considered Kandinsky’s masterpiece. Without doubt it is the acme of his artistic achievements’ (Roethel, 1979, p. 104). It was within his composition series, produced between 1910 and 1939 (Dabrowski, 1995, p. 6) that Kandinsky created this unique pictorial experience. Within this series he is hailed by modernist art critics as having moved away from solid figurative representations to a purely optical art based on colour and form alone. As with the work of Delaunay, it must be accepted that the work in question did indeed lean toward abstraction in terms of its aesthetic approach. It must be questioned however, whether Kandinsky used abstraction to achieve a decorative, ‘pure art’ or if it could be said that his work does in fact illustrate his socio-political viewpoint.

Kandinsky’s main aim in his artistic practice was to override the conscious engagement of the viewer in his work. The gesamtkunstwerk; a synthesis of all the arts to create a total art work, was a popular idea introduced by the compositions of Richard Wagner (1830- 1883). Kandinsky was very interested in these ideas as well as the synthesis of colour in which he believed that coulr could be heard, much as music could. Using art to effect the senses was largely inspired in Kandinsky however by the spiritual Theosophist Association practising throughout Europe in the early twentieth century. This movement was concerned with the contention that the arts could directly affect the human soul and allow people to escape the imminent apocalypse, which would be caused by the materialism of modernity. Abstraction was an important step towards aiding the renewal of human souls, to Kandinsky, as it had the potential for ‘communicating his messianic vision of a coming utopian epoch’ (Long, 1975, p. 217). He believed that if the imagery in his work was unrecognisable to the audience, but did exist within his work, then it would be read by the soul. This was seconded by the Theosophists who maintained that ‘truths of the higher worlds were not easily understandable and could best be communicated by indirect and vague means’ (ibid).

The veiled imagery is then, rife in Kandinsky’s work and particularly in Composition VII, which was carefully abstracted and made to conceal imagery in an intricate process of around thirty preparatory pieces. The imagery concerned is mostly biblical, taken from the Book of Revelations, which the Theosophists saw as parallel with the battle of materialism and spirituality in modernity.

Kandinsky believed colour to be a ‘power which directly influences the soul’ (Kandinsky, 1912) and so used a complex colour theory to further promote the philosophical principles of his work. He explains this principle in an elaborate metaphor, which implies that the soul is the piano, played by colour, again affirming the importance of allowing his paintings to be heard as music and entirely affect the audience. Within his complex ideas the light colours of yellows and whites leap from the canvas and approach the viewer, whilst the cold, dark blues and blacks retract into themselves. The spectrum of colours between these two extremes include static, restful green and active, mature red. The use of these colours in Composition VII must be discussed in terms of the veiled imagery in order to fully comprehend the message Kandinsky aimed to feed to the soul of the beholder.

‘If we begin at once to break the bonds which bind us to nature and devote  ourselves purely to a combination of pure colour and abstract form, we shall produce works which are mere decoration’ (Kandinsky, 1912, p. 45). Whilst Kandinsky believed in the idea of a pure art in which colour and form alone conveyed a message, he feared that complete abstraction would lose his art its potential to act as a vehicle for his socio-political ideals. Based on his social and religious beliefs, fuelled by the writings of the Theosophist Association, Kandinsky’s imagery in Composition VII is based on the idea of the Apocalypse, with the key themes of Deluge and the Last Judgement featuring (Long, 1975, p. 217). The image of the boat in the bottom left corner of the picture is a reference to Noah’s Ark, the impending flood and the spiritual reformation of society Kandinsky hopes for. The top right hand corner features an angel with a trumpet[4]; the ‘most characteristic motif of the Last Judgement’ (ibid), the biblical understanding that after death, each person must answer to God. This image persuades the viewers of Kandinsky’s work to rectify their materialistic nature before the Last Judgement. The key images of the ark and the angel can been seen to have been painted in various shades of blue and black to make them seem unobtainable and out of the reach of the observer, against a background of light yellows and oranges which approach them. It is as though Kandinsky is making the irrelevant forms reach out more than the spiritual images, as though denying access to the conscious observer and instead forcing the soul to search for them.

The form of Kandinsky’s Composition VII also stands as evidence that abstraction was not the overarching aim of his career. His early work in Moscow, such as The Singer (1903)[5], shows his interest in peasant communities and the traditional Russian art they practised based around the ancient tradition of the woodblock print, depicting ancient Russian folklore; the Lubok. He had been made aware of the diverse, rural communities outside of Russia’s major cities whilst studying Economics and Law in Moscow, in particular he found Russian Peasant Law ‘fascinating’ (Duchting, Wassily Kandinsky, 1991). Composition VII if carefully considered can be seen to have many of the features of the Lubok such as the dark outlines of images filled with bright colours that don’t quite match the lines. Looking back to folk art for inspiration led Kandinsky to a style that could ‘provide an alternative to Western art of the academic tradition’ (Long, 1975, p. 219)which he wished to move away from to reject the associated materialism.

By moving to abstraction both Delaunay and Kandinsky were idolised by the modernist branch of art history as having paved the way for a ‘pure’ art, devoid of social content. However, Delaunay made an obvious move back to figurative painting after his abstract series in order to apply his theories of dynamic, simultaneous colour to motifs of popular culture and modernity, ultimately leading to his painting The Cardiff Team which shows how he celebrated his modern environment, believing it could lead to ascension to the stars. In the same way, modernist assumed that Kandinsky was working towards a pure form of art, whilst in actual fact he was driven to create pieces that would communicate, through musical colour and concealed biblical imagery, to the soul of his audience, persuading them of the negative effects of modernity. He was calling out for spirituality to destroy materialism through an apocalypse of modernity and return to primitive, religious values. Essentially, both artists used abstracted imagery to express their colour theory which promoted their hugely divergent views on modernity.

Bibliography

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Barnes, R., Coomer, M., Freedman, K., Godfrey, T., Grant, S., Larner, M., et al. (1999). The 20th Century Art Book. London: Phaidon.

Butler, A., Van Cleave, C., & Stirling, S. (1997). The Art Book. London: Phaidon.

Chipp, H. B. (1958). Orphism and Colour Theory. The Art Bulletin , 40 (1), 55- 63.

Dabrowski, M. (1995). Kandinsky; Compositions. New York: The Museum of Modern Art.

Delaunay, R. (1912). Letter to Wassily Kandinsky. Retrieved March 13, 2010, from The Artchive: http://www.artchive.com/artchive/D/delaunay.html

Delaunay, R. (1912). Light. Retrieved March 14, 2010, from The Artchive: http://www.artchive.com/artchive/D/delaunay.html

Duchting, H. (1994). Robert and Sonia Delaunay; The Triumph of Colour. Koln: Benedikt Taschen.

Duchting, H. (1991). Wassily Kandinsky. Koln: Benedikt Taschen.

Golding, J. (2000). Kandinsky and the Sound of Colour. In Paths to the Absolute (pp. 81- 113). London: Thames & Hudson.

Kandinsky, W. (1912). Concerning the Spiritual in Art (1977 ed.). (M. T. Sadler, Trans.) New York: Dover.

Kuspit, D. B. (1975). Delaunay's Rationale for Peinture Pure 1909- 15. The Art Journal , 34 (2), 108- 114.

Long, R. C. (1975). Kandinsky's Abstract Style; The Veiling of Apocalyptic Folk Imagery. The Art Journal , 34 (3), 217- 228.

Murray, P., & Murray, L. (1997). Dictionary of Art and Artists (7th Edition ed.). London: Penguin Books.

National Galleries of Scotland. (2010). Robert Delaunay; L'Équipe de Cardiff [The Cardiff Team]. Retrieved March 14, 2010, from National Galleries of Scotland: http://www.nationalgalleries.org/collection/online_az/4:322/result/0/472?initial=D&artistId=3053&artistName=Robert%20Delaunay&submit=1

Roethel, H. K. (1979). Kandinsky. Oxford: Phaidon Press Limited.

Spate, V. (1997). Orphism. In Concepts of Modern Art; From Fauvism to Postmodernism (pp. 85- 96). London: Thames & Hudson.

Images Cited

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Image 1- Delaunay, R. (1913) The Cardiff Team. Musée d'Art Moderne de la Ville de Paris, Paris.

Image 2- Kandinsky, W. (1913) Composition VII. The Tretyakov Gallery, Moscow.

  

Image 3- Delaunay, R. (1923) The Cardiff Team. Scottish National Gallery of Modern Art, Edinburgh.

Image 4- Kandinsky, W. (1913) The Last Judgement (a study for Composition VII). Städtische Galerie im Lenbachhaus, Munich. 

 Image 5- Kandinsky, W. (1913) The Singer. Städtische Galerie im Lenbachhaus, Munich. 

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[1] See image 1

[2] See image 2

[3] See image 3

[4] The imagery for this was explored by Kandinsky in The Last Judgement (a study for Composition VII) 1913, and been seen clearly in the top right hand corner of the piece (see image 4)

[5] See image 5

POP!

Throughout the period in the arts generally defined as ‘modern’ many avant-garde movements radicalised the norms of fine art painting and sculpture, in their attempt to break free of academic tradition and represent social and political issues. None achieve such an innovative and exciting method of doing so as the Pop Art revolution which stormed Britain and America throughout the 1950’s and 60’s. Richard Hamilton, the pioneer of British Pop art, stated that ‘Pop art was what we called mass media, cinema and television; it had nothing to do with fine art’ (Hamilton, 2004). This is essentially what makes the Pop movement modern; it rejected the status quo of the celebrated abstract- expressionist movement, to elevate mundane comic strips and simple imagery to the status of high art. As one of the final movements before the post- modernist art era began, Pop art pulled its inspiration from many of the innovative movements which preceded it. In Synthetic Cubism for example, Braque sampled current newspapers which acted as a social commentary, something which is mirrored in Lichtenstein’s use of popular, comic strip images. In terms of its socio-political outlook The Twentieth Century Art Book describes Pop art as ‘the imagery of consumer society and popular culture’ (Barnes, et al., 1999). This essay will explore the ways in which Pop art addresses the growing consumer culture of the 1960’s, but also attempt to ascertain whether the comment in Life Magazine, 1964, that Pop art (in particular the work of Roy Lichtenstein) is simply ‘tedious copies of the banal’ (Life Magazine, 1964) or if it can be said that the movement addressed more serious socio- political concerns of that period.

‘Bt the early Sixties post-war Americans were happily conditioned to believe anything that mass media put forth, and advertising was embraced without question or hesitation’ (Heller, 2005, p. 5). Huge companies were beginning to hold power over people through the commodification of their goods and creating a consumer culture. Due to the fact that jobs in the urban service and manufacturing industries were rapidly increasing, because of ‘progress on the Interstate Highway System’ and ‘improvements in processing, marketing, and transportation technologies’ (Haren, 1970, p. 431), people were growing richer and moving out of rural occupations into the cities. These people were enticed by the adverts they were subjected to, so sought to be defined by the status of the material things they could now afford. Generally the west was becoming ever more rich, powerful and prosperous, something which allowed Brits and Americans the freedom to consume as they wished in a society where companies had the power to persuade them.

Through this competitive consumer culture, certain styles and fashions became prevalent and accepted as the status quo and became known as popular ‘Pop’ culture. Projection of Pop into the arts is ‘based on the acceptance and use of artefacts, mass advertising and press media’ (Murray & Murray, 1997, p. 413). It is generally accepted that Pop had two separate origins, on in Britain and one in America. ‘The English stream came first, during the 1950’s’ (Murray & Murray, 1997) when Richard Hamilton ‘became one of Pops leading exponents’ (Barnes, et al., 1999). Just What Is It Makes Today’s Home So Different So Appealing? is Hamilton’s 1956 poster which was the premiere of British Pop and is a perfect example of Pop art acting as a commentary of the consumer society. The word ‘home’ used in the title provokes imagery of an intimate, private setting, but Hamilton declines this ideal and instead presents a collage of adverts and magazine cuttings portraying popular culture, lifestyle and celebrities. The impact of this apparent paradox between the traditional and modern concepts of ‘home’ challenges the social issue of consumer culture head on and acts as a critique of the invasion of the mass media into every aspect of life.

Another way in which the earlier Pop art pieces acted as a social critique can be seen by looking at American Pop art, which began later that the British strand, in the early 1960’s. Roy Lichtenstein is a celebrated figure within the field, hailed for his use of the Ben Day dot system in his fine art. This method, widely associated with comic strips and cartoons, baffled art critics and the public alike when it was displayed alongside the fine arts and literally took relevant media and Pop culture into the realms of high art. The premiere example of this comic book art is his Look Mickey of 1961. This piece portrays Mickey Mouse and Donald Duck, fictional Walt Disney characters of comic book fame and is executed only in lurid primary colours. Because Lichtenstein creates it in the celebrated medium of oil on stretched canvas on a huge scale (121.9 x 175.3 cm) usually reserved for academic portraiture, the piece was seen to subvert the idea of art as a bourgeoisie pursuit and present it simply as popular culture; in effect it was addressing the social issue of contested social class, which prevailed throughout the 1960’s in view of the fact that the ongoing Cold War spurred interest into the ideals of communism and equality, leading to a general questioning of class differences (Ehrlich, 1971). If the imagery of Look Mickey is analysed then this idea becomes even more profound and it can be seen how Pop art is not always as simplistic as it first appears. Michael Lobel discusses how psychoanalysis of the joke, where there is a subject (in this case Donald Duck) a joke maker (Mickey Mouse) and a joke receiver (the audience), can reveal that the more ‘animal like’ character of Donald Duck, portrayed on all fours as opposed to Mickey’s standing, personified position, where he is aware of Donald’s self-exposure. According to Lobel these two figures represent ‘a form utterly identified with low culture- that has been made into an easel painting, perhaps the epitome of the high cultural form’ (Lobel, 2002, p. 37), thus supporting the idea that Pop art represents a critique of the social issue of class conflict.

From this starting point Lichtenstein’s work continued to modestly attack society’s status quo. Whilst a consumer culture and increasing affluence were rife in America, its foreign policies were destroying lives, by providing aid to the Southern Government in Vietnam. It was estimated that ‘close to 321,000 Americans have been killed or injured from January, 1961, through April, 1970’ (Ehrlich, 1971, p. 2), which was a huge loss to the nation and a moral drain on society. It is hardly surprising then, that in 1962 Lichtenstein ‘creates his first paintings based on All-American Men of War comics, such as Blam, Takka Takka, and Live Ammo’ (Bellroy, 2007).

Live Ammo is perhaps the most striking of these images, featuring a soldier figure in the larger, left hand panel who simply screams, ‘Take cover!’, whilst the thinner right hand panel features the intimate thoughts of the second figure. The composition of these two figures and their associated text is most interesting when analysing this piece. As a modernist artist, which Lichtenstein undoubtedly is, the most notable aspect of the painting is the cropped picture space, which renders the imagery ambiguous and its context illegible. This same feature however, could be seen to address the very relevant socio- political issue of the Vietnam War. Rather than rendering the image indecipherable, the cropped composition could be seen to enhance the mysticism and interest of the character. When combined with his clearly displayed thoughts this technique juxtaposes the fact that this soldier is both human, with obvious feelings, but also as simply a number whose identity we cannot access; it could be seen as a powerful reference to the American lives wasted through the experience of war. By Lichtenstein’s presentation of such a serious political issue in his signature ‘comic’ style it could also be observed that the images of the two characters actually portray the same person as their features are indistinguishable and very generically presented. In this sense the point of a public and private combatant is enhanced and the purpose of the painting, as a critique of war, is reiterated.

Andy Warhol (1928- 1987) was a radical Pop artist of the 1960’s who subversively reacted to socio- political issues of his time. His contribution to Pop culture, such as his banana album cover for radical group The Velvet Underground which meant his work was literally an object for consumption, but Warhol’s work also attacked some more important social issues. Whilst in cannot be doubted in any reasonable way that in Warhol’s ‘mass producing images of everyday items...he questioned both authorship and the validity of uniqueness’ (Barnes, et al., 1999, p. 484), ultimately remarking upon the consumer culture of the period, it was his Death and Disaster series of the early 1960’s which especially addressed some of the more serious socio- political issues. The most shocking of the images created was 129 Die in Jet (Plane Crash), 1962. This piece literally references a high profile plane crash which killed 129 people. Warhol, it seem was very conscious of the disasters happening around him, commenting,

“I guess it was the big plane crash picture, the front page of the newspaper: 129 Die.  I was also painting the Marilyns.  I realized that everything I was doing must have been Death. It was Christmas or Labor Day—a holiday—and every time you turned on the radio they said something like “4 million are going to die.”  (Warhol, 1963).

Skull, 1976, is an example of a much later work in this series. It has been noted that this piece stands for Warhol’s representation of ‘kitsch, commodities and celebrity... in its absence and anonymity, its disaster and death’ (Foster, 2001, p. 79). Warhol was disturbed by the mass media and the way such issues as the death of hundreds of people could be mass produced in the same way marketable goods were in that period. By using a skull as a subject matter, he references the death of every person in the world; it’s a bold critique of loss of individuality, the mass media and mass production.

One of the most notable long term effects of the Second World War was the movement of women from work in the home to aspiring career women. Despite this, the vast majority of adverts for household products in the 1960’s reference women in the traditional ‘housewife’ role and idealise their consumption of associated products. Roy Lichtenstein’s Washing Machine, 1961 and Spray, 1962 are good examples of this as both show a female hand performing the household chores of filling a washing machine and using a spray can. The fact that such a large volume of Lichtenstein’s paintings reference women in this way support the idea that they are a clear critique of the way women were targeted by advertisers as chief consumers. The ‘Romance’ series of his paintings also tackle the gender issues of wider society. Drowning Girl, 1963, for example depicts a female character that would rather drown than ask for help from a male character; it acts as way of showing women’s domination by men in the patriarchal society. It is possible though, that this critique was lost as ‘in several cases the advertising industry borrowed Lichtenstein's comic book style and romance themes to sell consumer goods to female shoppers’ (Whiting, 1992, p. 11); the meaning of the paintings was therefore lost as they were adopted by the sexist consumer culture they sought to resist.

Whilst Pop art is not immediately recognisable as a movement which addresses social and political issues, it can be seen that by critically analysing the content of these radical paintings and prints that they do attack the issues of a growing consumer culture as well as the associated problems such a society created, such as war, polarization of the social classes and sexism. This modernist movement was successful in reflecting the Pop culture of the 1960’s by becoming so available that it too was mass produced, challenging the relationship between high art and mass culture. Overall, Pop art defied fashions and customs of the period to invite criticism of the mass producing, impersonal and essentially consumer culture.

Bibliography

Barnes, R., Coomer, M., Freedman, K., Godfrey, T., Grant, S., Larner, M., et al. (1999). The 20th Century Art Book. London: Phaidon.

Bellroy, C. (2007). Chronology. Retrieved March 04, 2009, from The Roy Lichtenstein Foundation: http://www.lichtensteinfoundation.org/frames.htm

Ehrlich, H. J. (1971). Social Conflict in America: The 1960's. The Sociological Quarterly , 12 (3), 295- 307.

Foster, H. (2001). Death in America. In A. Michelson (Ed.), Andy Warhol (pp. 69-90). London: The MIT Press.

Hamilton, R. (2004). Interview with Richard Hamilton. (J. Tusa, Interviewer)

Hamilton, R. Just What Is It Makes Todays Home So Different, So Appealing? Kunsthalle Tübingen, Tubingen.

Haren, C. C. (1970). Rural Industrial Growth in the 1960's. American Journal of Agricultural Economics , 52 (3), 431- 437.

Heller, S. (2005). The Golden Age of Advertising- The 60's. (J. Heinmann, Ed.) Cologne: Taschen.

Lichtenstein, R. Drowning Girl. Museum Of Modern Art, New York.

Lichtenstein, R. Look Mickey. National Gallery of Washington D.C.

Lichtenstein, R. Spray. Staatsgalerie, Stuttgart.

Lichtenstein, R. Washing Machine. Yale University Art Gallery, New Haven.

Life Magazine. (1964, January 31). Is He The Worst Artist In The U.S? New York: Life Magazine.

Lobel, M. (2002). Image Duplicator. Roy Lichtenstein and the Emergence of Pop Art. New Haven: Yale University Press.

Murray, P., & Murray, L. (1997). Dictionary of Art and Artists. London: Penguin.

Warhol, A. 129 Die In Jet! (Plane Crash). Museum Ludwig College, Cologne.

Warhol, A. (1963). (G. Swenson, Interviewer) Art News.

Warhol, A. Skull. The Dia Art Foundation, New York.

Whiting, C. (1992). Borrowed Spots: The Gendering of Comic Books, Lichtenstein's Paintings, and Dishwasher Detergent. American Art , 9- 35.

Appendices.

1. Hamilton, R. Just What Is It Makes Todays Home So Different, So Appealing? Kunsthalle Tübingen, Tubingen.

  

2. Lichtenstein, R. Drowning Girl. Museum Of Modern Art, New York.

3. Lichtenstein, R. Look Mickey. National Gallery of Washington D.C.

4. Lichtenstein, R. Spray. Staatsgalerie, Stuttgart.

5. Lichtenstein, R. Washing Machine. Yale University Art Gallery, New Haven.

  

6. Warhol, A. 129 Die In Jet! (Plane Crash). Museum Ludwig College, Cologne.

7. Warhol, A. Skull. The Dia Art Foundation, New York.